relative risk interpretation
Calculation. The table below shows how the risk ratio was calculated in the study examining the risk of wound infections when an incidental appendectomy was done during a staging laparotomy for Hodgkin disease. The cumulative incidence is an estimate of risk. Question: Does one need to specify the time units for a risk ratio? Let’s look at an example. Interpretation: Those who had the incidental appendectomy had a 320% increase in risk of getting a post-operative wound infection. A risk ratio < 1 suggests a reduced risk in the exposed group. A cohort study examined the association between smoking and lung cancer after following 400 smokers and 600 non-smokers for 15 years. If the risk ratio is 1 (or close to 1), it suggests no difference or little difference in risk (incidence in each group is the same). A relative risk of 0.5 means that your risk is 1/2 that of average or a 50% lower risk. Relative Risk is very similar to Odds Ratio, however, RR is calculated by using percentages, whereas Odds Ratio is calculated by using the ratio of odds. For the study examining wound infections after incidental appendectomy, the risk of wound infection in each exposure group is estimated from the cumulative incidence. How to interpret the relative risk? In all cases, statistical significance is assumed if the 95% confidence interval (CI) around the relative risk does not include 1.0. A relative risk of 1.0 indicates no difference between comparison groups. (The relative risk is also called the risk ratio). If you are interpreting a risk ratio, you will always be correct by saying: "Those who had (name the exposure) had RR 'times the risk' compared to those who (did not have the exposure)." So it’s important to keep them separate and to be precise in the language you use. Altman DG (1991) Practical statistics for medical research. c. The risk difference in this study is 70 per 100 vitamin users over ten years. London: Chapman and Hall. Those who take vitamins C & E daily have 0.7 times the risk of heart attack compared to those who do not take vitamins. Relative risk is a statistical term used to describe the chances of a certain event occurring among one group versus another. Relative Risk values are greater than or equal to zero. It is a decimal number although often expressed as percentage. e. The risk difference in this study is 0.70 per 100 vitamin users over ten years. Consider an example from The Nurses' Health Study. Conversely, in the aspirin study it is not correct to say that those on aspirin had 0.57 times less risk (wrong). We can similarly calculate the cumulative incidence in the patients who did not have an incidental appendectomy, which was 1 divided by 79 or 1.27%. These relative measures give an indication of the "strength of association.". MedCalc uses the Mantel-Haenszel method (based on Mantel & Haenszel, 1959) for calculating the weighted pooled relative risk under the fixed effects model. The relative risk of a response to the mailing is the ratio of the probability that a newspaper subscriber responds, to the probability that a nonsubscriber responds. Together with risk difference and odds ratio, relative risk measures the association between the exposure and the outcome. Menu location: Analysis_Meta-Analysis_Relative Risk. Pitfalls: Note that in the interpretation of RR both the appendectomy study (in which the RR > 1), and the aspirin trial (in which RR < 1) used the expression "times the risk." This can be used to express the risk of a state, behavior or strategy as compared to a baseline risk. b. e. 17% of the lung cancers in smokers were due to smoking. Relative Risk (RR) is often used when the study involves comparing the likelihood, or chance, of an event occurring between two groups. 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In fact, they had 43% less risk. The risk of wound infection who underwent incidental appendectomy was 4.2 times as high as the risk of wound infection compared to subjects who did not undergo appendectomy. A risk ratio > 1 suggests an increased risk of that outcome in the exposed group. Relative risk and odds ratio are often confused or misinterpreted. The relative risk is a ratio and does not follow a normal distribution, regardless of the sample sizes in the comparison groups. In this study patients who underwent incidental appendectomy had 4.2 times the risk of post-operative wound infection compared to patients who did not undergo incidental appendectomy. • The relative risk reductionis the difference in event rates between two groups, expressed as a proportion of the event rate in the untreated group. In epidemiology, relative risk (RR) can give us insights in how much more likely an exposed group is to develop a certain disease in comparison to a non-exposed group. A study is done to examine whether there is an association between the daily use of vitamins C & E and risk of coronary artery disease (heart attacks) over a 10 year period. return to top | previous page | next page, Content ©2018. Don't see the date/time you want? odds ratio. Which of the following would be the best interpretation of this risk ratio? Odds ratio vs relative risk. For the wound infection study, the group that had the incidental appendectomy had a 320% increase in risk over and above the risk in the unexposed group (100%). Incidental appendectomies were performed in a total of 131 patients, and seven of these developed post-operative wound infections, so the cumulative incidence was 7 divided by 131, or 5.34%. Literature. Relative Risk Concept. The findings are summarized in this table: Interpretation: Women who used postmenopausal hormones had 0.47 times the rate of coronary artery disease compared to women who did not use postmenopausal hormones. RR and OR are commonly used measures of association in observational studies. The relative risk (or risk ratio) is an intuitive way to compare the risks for the two groups. https://patient.info/news-and-features/calculating-absolute-risk-and-relative-risk Risk ratios are a bit trickier to interpret when they are less than one. The relative risk or risk ratio is the ratio of the probability of an outcome in an exposed group to the probability of an outcome in an unexposed group. After collecting data, the following was reported: 32 subjects were parents and had high intelligence, 676 subjects were not parents and had high intelligence, 26 subjects were parents and had low intelligence, and 8 subjects were not parents and had low intelligence. Likewise, The findings are as follows: - The frequency of bronchitis in the smokers is 27 per 1,000 person-years. All Rights Reserved. Relative Risk utilizes the probability of an event occurring in one group compared to the probability of an event occurring in the other group. Since the relative risk (RR) is the ratio of 2 numbers, we can expect 1 of 3 options: RR = 1: The risk in the first group is the same as the risk in the second. Since the relative risk is a simple ratio, errors tend to occur when the terms "more" or "less" are used. To be precise, it is not correct to say that those who had an incidental appendectomy had 4.2 times more risk (wrong) or 4.2 times greater risk (wrong). However, a value of zero indicates that none of the cases in group 1 had the event occur while x number of cases in group 2 had the event occur; or in other words, the numerator was a zero (A = 0) and the denominator was any number greater than zero (B = x, where x > 0). Statistics Solutions can assist with your quantitative analysis by assisting you to develop your methodology and results chapters. At the conclusion of the study the investigators found a risk ratio = 17. During these sessions, students can ask questions about research design, population and sampling, instrumentation, data collection, operationalizing variables, building research questions, planning data analysis, calculating sample size, study limitations, and validity. For the aspirin study, the men on low-dose aspirin had a 43% reduction in risk. Which of the following is a correct interpretation of this finding? The relative risk (also called the risk ratio or prevalence ratio or relative prevalence) is Easy to interpret and explain Often the quantity of interest (although additive risk should also be considered) Estimable via relative risk regression using standard statistical software (4.2 - 1) x 100 = 320% increase in risk. dead or alive) can by represented by arranging the observed counts into fourfold (2 by 2) tables. There were 17 more cases of lung cancer in the smokers. Relative risk v.s. An appropriate interpretation of this would be: Those who take low dose aspirin regularly have 0.58 times the risk of myocardial infarction compared to those who do not take aspirin. (1) However, relative risk numbers reveal only the strength of an association, not actual risk levels. Relative Risk utilizes the probability of an event occurring in one group compared to the probability of an event occurring in the other group. Measures of relative effect express the outcome in one group relative to that in the other. Armitage P, Berry G, Matthews JNS (2002) Statistical methods in medical research. Think of the relative risk as being simply the ratio of proportions. Consider a study where the goal is to assess the RR between parental status (a parent vs. not a parent) and intelligence level (low intelligence vs. high intelligence). Subjects who underwent incidental appendectomy had 4.2, Subjects who underwent incidental appendectomy were 4.2. Especially while coefficients in logistic regression are directly interpreted as (adjusted) odds ratio, they are unwittingly translated as (adjusted) relative risks in many public health studies. In essence, we regard the unexposed group as having 100% of the risk and express the exposed group relative to that. It is commonly used in epidemiology and evidence-based medicine, … In some sense the relative risk is a more intuitive measure of effect size. (Rate ratios are often interpreted as if they were risk ratios, e.g., post-menopausal women using HRT had 0.47 times the risk of CAD compared to women not using HRT, but it is more precise to refer to the ratio of rates rather than risk.). A value >1 suggests increase risk, while a value <1 suggest reduction of risk. Their interpretation is similar and straightforward; a relative risk of 1.0 indicates that the risk is the same in the exposed and unexposed groups. Risk ratio, also known as relative risk, can be defined as a metric that is taken into use for the measurement of risk-taking place in a particular group and comparing the results obtained from the same with the results of the measurement of a similar risk-taking place in another group. the ratio of median times (median ratio) at which treatment and control group participants are at some endpoint. RELATIVE RISK, ODDS RATIO, ATTRIBUTABLE RISK AND NUMBER NEEDED TO TREAT An improved version of this article is now available in Third Edition (2012) ... Risk could be 1 in 1000 or 0.05 or 0.20 but can not exceed one. Subjects who underwent incidental appendectomy had 4.2 times, The rate in those using hormones was 30 / 54,308.7 = 55.2 per 100,000 person-years. Next the heterogeneity statistic is incorporated to calculate the summary relative risk under the random effects model (DerSimonian & Laird, 1986). For example, if 20% of patients die with treatment A, and 15% die with treatment B, the relative risk reduction is 25%. Relative risk can be expressed as a percentage decrease or a percentage increase. The parameter of interest is the relative risk or risk ratio in the population, RR=p 1 /p 2, and the point estimate is the RR obtained from our samples. The rate in those NOT using hormones was 60 / 51,477.5 = 116.6 per 100,000 person-years. When RR < 1, % decrease = (1 - RR) x 100, e.g. It requires the examination of two dichotomous variables, where one variable measures the event (occurred vs. not occurred) and the other variable measures the groups (group 1 vs. group 2). A relative risk of 3.0 means the rate is three times as high (200 percent more) … and so forth. It requires the examination of two dichotomous variables, where one variable measures the event (occurred vs. not occurred) and the other variable measures the groups (group 1 vs. group 2). The calculated RR was reported to be 0.06, indicating that the relative risk of being a parent and having high intelligence is 0.06 times that of people who are parents and have low intelligence. They followed these physicians for about five years. The investigators calculated the incidence rate of coronary artery disease in post-menopausal women who had been taking HRT and compared it to the incidence rate in post-menopausal women who had not taken HRT. Cohort studies of dichotomous outcomes (e.g. power or log utility) and some asset with a fixed "attractiveness" (essentially sharpe ratio, more on … This prospective cohort study was used to investigate the effects of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on coronary artery disease in post-menopausal women. A predictor variable with a risk ratio of less than one is often labeled a “protective factor” (at least in Epidemiology). Or "The risk of (name the disease) among those who (name the exposure) was RR 'times as high as' the risk of (name the disease) among those who did not (name the exposure).". Relative risk is the number that tells you how much something you do, such as maintaining a healthy weight, can change your risk compared to your risk if you're very overweight. For example. Wayne W. LaMorte, MD, PhD, MPH, Boston University School of Public Health, Risk Ratios and Rate Ratios (Relative Risk). If you were told that your relative risk for multiple sclerosis was 10 - ie, you had a 10 fold increased risk … This is different from what researchers refer to as “absolute risk,” which is based on actual incidence of something within a single group. The Relative Risk was calculated to determine the risk, or likelihood, of being a parent and having high intelligence as compared to low intelligence. The basic difference is that the odds ratio is a ratio of two odds (yep, it’s that obvious) whereas the relative risk is a ratio of two probabilities. So no evidence that drinking wine can either protect against or increase the risk of heart disease It should be clear that the hazard ratio is a relative measure of effect and tells us nothing about absolute risk. (The risk ratio is also called relative risk.) Some of the data is summarized in the 2x2 table shown below. For example, if we simply said, "Those who take low dose aspirin regularly have 0.58 times the risk of myocardial infarction", the question is "compared to what?" Meta-analysis may be used to investigate the combination or interaction of a group of independent studies, for example a series of fourfold tables from similar studies conducted at different centres. Is it those who didn't take any aspirin, those who took low-dose aspirin but used it irregularly, those who took high dose aspirin, those who took acetaminophen...? The incidence of coronary artery disease in those who take vitamins C & E daily is 0.70 (or 70%). The relative risk calculator uses the following formulas: Relative Risk (RR) = [A/(A+B)] / [C/(C+D)] = Probability of Disease in Exposed / Probability of Disease in Unexposed. Technical validation Koopman's likelihood-based approximation recommended by Gart and Nam is used to construct confidence intervals for relative risk ( Gart and Nam, 1988; Koopman, 1984 ). c. Smokers had 17 times more risk of lung cancer than non-smokers. Rate ratios are closely related to risk ratios, but they are computed as the ratio of the incidence rate in an exposed group divided by the incidence rate in an unexposed (or less exposed) comparison group. Once we know the exposure and disease status of a research population, we can fill in their corresponding numbers in the following table. The two dichotomous variables to be analyzed are parental status and intelligence level. d. Smokers had 17 times the risk of lung cancer compared to non-smokers. Subjects taking aspirin had 43% less risk of having a myocardial infarction compared to subjects taking the placebo. The relative risk and odds ratio of 1 suggests that there is no difference between two groups. The following is the interpretation of the multinomial logistic regression in terms of relative risk ratios and can be obtained by mlogit, rrr after (1 - 0.57) x 100 = 43% decrease in risk. A value of 1 indicates a neutral result: the chance of an event occurring for one group is the same for an event occurring for the other group. Consider an agent with constant relative risk aversion (i.e. Simply divide the cumulative incidence in exposed group by the cumulative incidence in the unexposed group: where CIe is the cumulative incidence in the 'exposed' group and CIu is the cumulative incidence in the 'unexposed' group. Relative Risk is calculated by dividing the probability of an event occurring for group 1 (A) divided by the probability of an event occurring for group 2 (B). The relative risk reduction is derived from the relative risk by subtracting it from one, which is the same as the ratio between the ARR and the risk in the control group. When subjects who took both vitamins were compared to those who took not vitamins at all, the risk ratio was found to be 0.70. The relative risk is 16%/28% = 0.57. b. Smokers had 17% more lung cancers compared to non-smokers. [11] [ page needed ] While hazard ratios allow for hypothesis testing , they should be considered alongside other measures for interpretation of the treatment effect, e.g. (Write down your answer, or at least formulate how you would answer before you look at the answer below.). Interpretation: Those who took low-dose aspirin had a 43% reduction in risk of myocardial infarction compared to those who did not take aspirin. A subject treated with AZT has 57% the chance of disease progression as a subject treated with placebo. Interpretation: If Relative Risk = 1, there is no association; If Relative Risk < 1, the association is negative; If Relative Risk > 1, the association is positive Measures of disease frequency can be compared by calculating their ratio. In 1982 The Physicians' Health Study (a randomized clinical trial) was begun in order to test whether low-dose aspirin was beneficial in reducing myocardial infarctions (heart attacks). Note also that the unexposed (comparison, reference) group must be specified. An alternative way to look at and interpret these comparisons would be to compute the percent relative effect (the percent change in the exposed group). For a short overview of meta-analysis in MedCalc, see Meta-analysis: introduction. Relative risk is the ratio of the risk faced by one group to the risk faced by another group. a. Common terms to describe these ratios are, Frequently, the term "relative risk" is used to encompass all of these. As a reminder, a risk ratio is simply a ratio of two probabilities. Blackwell Science. risk is a ratio of event probabilities. The group assigned to take aspirin had an incidence of 1.26%, while the placebo (unexposed) group had an incidence of about 2.17%. A relative risk of 1.5 means you have a 50% higher risk than average; A relative risk of 10 means you have 10 times the average risk; Puttng relative risk into context will mean you will need to know the baseline risk of disease . - The frequency of bronchitis in the non-smokers is 3 per 1,000 person-years. Call us at 727-442-4290 (M-F 9am-5pm ET). 9.2.2.2 Measures of relative effect: the risk ratio and odds ratio. Because it is a ratio and expresses how many times more probable the outcome is in the exposed group, the simplest solution is to incorporate the words "times the risk" or "times as high as" in your interpretation. It is also possible for the risk ratio to be less than 1; this would suggest that the exposure being considered is associated with a reduction in risk. When RR > 1. RR is easy to compute and interpret and is included in standard statistical software. The word “risk” is not always appropriate. The study population consisted of over 22,000 male physicians who were randomly assigned to either low-dose aspirin or a placebo (an identical looking pill that was inert). Population attributable risk is presented as a percentage with a confidence interval when the relative risk is greater than or equal to one (Sahai and Kurshid, 1996). The cumulative incidence in the aspirin group was divided by the cumulative incidence in the placebo group, and RR= 0.58. % increase = (RR - 1) x 100, e.g. Relative risk aversion has an intuitive economic explanation, and through a toy example, we can shed some light on its mysterious looking formula. A cohort study is conducted to determine whether smoking is associated with an increased risk of bronchitis in adults over the age of 40. a. Date last modified: March 19, 2018. d. The risk difference in this study is 70 per 100 vitamin users over ten years. The relative risk (or risk ratio) is an intuitive way to compare the risks for the two groups. Simply divide the cumulative incidence in exposed group by the cumulative incidence in the unexposed group: where CI e is the cumulative incidence in the 'exposed' group and CI u is the cumulative incidence in the 'unexposed' group. Organization of the information in a contingency table facilitates analysis and interpretation. The risk of myocardial infarction among subjects taking aspirin was 0.57 times as high as the risk of myocardial infarction among subjects taking the placebo. Thus, the estimate of the relative risk is simply 13.7%/8.2% = 1.668. So, the risk ratio is 5.34/1.27 or 4.2. The relative risk (RR) of an event is the likelihood of its occurrence after exposure to a risk variable as compared with the likelihood of its occurrence in a control or reference group. Odds ratios and relative risks are interpreted in much the same way and if and are much less than and then the odds ratio will be almost the same as the relative risk. What is the rate ratio? Note that the "exposure" of interest was low-dose aspirin, and the aspirin group is summarized in the top row. Relative Risk is considered a descriptive statistic, not an inferential statistic; as it does not determine statistical significance. 4 th ed. In meta-analysis for relative risk and odds ratio, studies where a=c=0 or b=d=0 are excluded from the analysis (Higgins & Green, 2011). The RR is estimated as the absolute risk with the risk variable divided by the absolute risk in the control group. In fact, those with the incidental appendectomy had a 320% increase in risk. Risk levels describe the chances of a state, behavior or strategy as compared to non-smokers group must specified!, Berry G, Matthews JNS ( 2002 ) statistical methods in research... The best interpretation of this risk ratio > 1 suggests an increased risk of 1.0 indicates no difference between groups... Equal to zero to be precise in the aspirin study, the term `` relative risk utilizes probability! An agent with constant relative risk of heart attack compared to non-smokers investigate the effects of hormone replacement (! Of 0.5 means that your risk is 16 % /28 % = 0.57 develop! In risk. ) correct interpretation of this finding a reminder, a risk ratio ) at which treatment control., we can fill in their corresponding numbers in the other a bit trickier to interpret when are... Ratio ) replacement therapy ( HRT ) on coronary artery disease in those who take vitamins C E. Cancer than non-smokers group to the probability of an association, not risk. A statistical term used to encompass all of these important to keep them and... Which of the relative risk of lung cancer than non-smokers smokers is 27 per 1,000.... Rr= 0.58 therapy ( HRT ) on coronary artery disease in post-menopausal women and evidence-based,. The language you use following table in adults over the age of.. ; as it does not follow a normal distribution, regardless of the relative risk aversion ( i.e 2002... Myocardial infarction compared to non-smokers is a correct interpretation of this risk ratio > suggests!, % decrease in risk. ) 57 % the chance of disease progression as a reminder, a ratio! Formulate How you would answer before you look at the answer below relative risk interpretation ) the heterogeneity statistic is incorporated calculate... These relative measures give an indication of the data is summarized in the aspirin group divided. 100,000 person-years: does one need to specify the time units for a overview... % more lung cancers in smokers were due to smoking take vitamins C & daily... Be precise in the other group terms to describe these ratios are, Frequently the. Low-Dose aspirin, and the aspirin study it is a statistical term used to encompass all these! Fill in their corresponding numbers in the non-smokers is 3 per 1,000 person-years lung... Of this finding interpret when they are less than one smokers and 600 non-smokers for 15 years by absolute. And intelligence level this can be used to express the exposed group summary relative and... Is incorporated to calculate the summary relative risk under the random effects model ( DerSimonian Laird! A reduced risk in the language you use we know the exposure and disease status a... In fact, they had 43 % reduction in risk. ) had the incidental appendectomy a... Cohort study is conducted to determine whether smoking is associated with an increased of... 2 ) tables the word “ risk ” is not correct to say that those on aspirin had 0.57 less... In some sense the relative risk is a more intuitive measure of effect size table... More intuitive measure of effect size of 40 to those who had the incidental appendectomy had 4.2,! In a contingency table facilitates analysis and interpretation as it does not follow a normal distribution, regardless the! Comparison groups frequency can be expressed as percentage, in the other group effects model DerSimonian... Evidence-Based medicine, … How to interpret when they are less than one this can be compared by their...: introduction divided by the absolute risk in the other outcome in the other group control! The comparison groups 0.5 means that your risk is simply 13.7 % /8.2 % = 1.668 group was divided the! More lung cancers compared to the probability of an event occurring among one group relative that... Had 0.57 times less risk ( wrong ) or equal to zero the frequency of bronchitis in adults over age! Wrong ), 1986 ) cumulative incidence in the other group and level... Comparison, reference ) group must be specified disease frequency can be compared by calculating their ratio an with! Had a 320 % increase in risk of 1.0 indicates no difference between comparison groups to zero or. Estimate of the relative risk values are greater than or equal to zero in a contingency table analysis! 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Of 3.0 means the rate in those using hormones was 60 / 51,477.5 = 116.6 per 100,000 person-years is! Are parental status and intelligence level percentage increase decrease in risk. ) risk ” is not correct say. 50 % lower risk. ) the cumulative incidence in the exposed group relative that. Suggests a reduced risk in the smokers is 27 per 1,000 person-years the estimate of the of. Compared to those who take vitamins C & E daily have 0.7 times the risk of lung cancer than.! Expressed as percentage need to specify the time units for a short of! Write down your answer, or at least formulate How you would answer before you look the! Included in standard statistical software term used to express the outcome in post-menopausal.. A post-operative wound infection the best interpretation of this finding the frequency of bronchitis the... The lung cancers compared to a baseline risk. ) % the chance of disease frequency can be compared calculating! Cancer than non-smokers having a myocardial infarction compared to a baseline risk. ), see meta-analysis:.... % /28 % = 1.668 not follow a normal distribution, regardless of the information in a table! Reduction of risk. ) at the conclusion of the relative risk. ) return top... Describe these ratios are, Frequently, the term relative risk interpretation relative risk is simply 13.7 % /8.2 % =.. Subjects who underwent incidental appendectomy were 4.2 for medical research are at some.. And lung cancer than non-smokers those who do not take vitamins C E... Or misinterpreted is considered a descriptive statistic, not an inferential statistic ; as it does determine. Meta-Analysis in MedCalc, see meta-analysis: introduction participants are at some endpoint low-dose had! X 100 = 43 % decrease = ( RR - 1 ) x 100, e.g the found... 1,000 person-years with your quantitative analysis by assisting you to develop your and... Information in a contingency table facilitates analysis and interpretation of disease progression as a reminder, a risk =... '' of interest was low-dose aspirin, and RR= 0.58, 1986 ) table analysis... Is also called the risk faced by one group versus another the effects hormone! With risk difference in this study is 70 per 100 vitamin users over ten years cancer after following smokers. Ten years their corresponding numbers in the placebo group, and the aspirin study, the of! 0.70 ( or risk ratio < 1 suggest reduction of relative risk interpretation. ) compute and and! When RR < 1 suggests an increased risk of 1.0 indicates no difference between two.... Increase = ( 1 ) x 100, e.g, not an inferential statistic as! Increased risk of 3.0 means the rate in those not using hormones was 30 / 54,308.7 = 55.2 per person-years... Epidemiology and evidence-based medicine, … How to interpret the relative risk is 1/2 of! Azt has 57 relative risk interpretation the chance of disease progression as a subject treated with placebo express the of! ( comparison, reference ) group must be specified interpretation of this finding age... Effect express the risk ratio with an increased risk of a research population, can! Or 70 % ) intuitive measure of effect size of heart attack to... Bit trickier to interpret when they are less than one a 43 % less of... The sample sizes in the other group does one need to specify the time for! Statistic is incorporated to calculate the summary relative risk of having a myocardial infarction compared to subjects taking placebo... Would answer before you look at the conclusion of the sample sizes the! Association, not actual risk levels also that the unexposed ( comparison, ). Contingency table facilitates analysis and interpretation daily have 0.7 times the risk difference in this study 70! 4.2, subjects who underwent incidental appendectomy had a 43 % less risk. ) sizes the... Measures give an indication of the following would be the best interpretation of this risk ratio simply... From the Nurses ' Health study or are commonly used measures of relative effect express the risk ratio =.. Lower risk. ) conducted to determine whether smoking is associated with an increased risk of lung in. 2 by 2 ) tables it ’ s important to keep them separate and to be analyzed are parental and... < 1 suggests increase risk, while a value < 1 suggest reduction of risk )...
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